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Sure, I can help you with that. A book on cannabis distilling would be a guide on how to make cannabis extracts that are highly pure and potent using a distillation process. Here is a possible outline for such a book:
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[https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Distill+concentrate+Cannabis+Cannabinoid+THC+Marijuana+extract YouTube]
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[https://www.quora.com/search?q=Distill%20concentrate%20Cannabis%20Cannabinoid%20THC%20Marijuana%20extract ... Quora]
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[https://www.google.com/search?q=Distill+concentrate+Cannabis+Cannabinoid+THC+Marijuana+extract ...Google search]
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[https://news.google.com/search?q=Distill+concentrate+Cannabis+Cannabinoid+THC+Marijuana+extract ...Google News]
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[https://www.bing.com/news/search?q=Distill+concentrate+Cannabis+Cannabinoid+THC+Marijuana+extract&qft=interval%3d%228%22 ...Bing News]
  
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* Introduction: Explain what cannabis distillate is, why it is popular, and what are its benefits and drawbacks. Provide some background information on the history and science of cannabis distillation. Define some key terms and concepts, such as cannabinoids, terpenes, solvents, extraction, purification, and distillation.
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* [[MyNotes]]
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* Chapter 1: Cannabis Extraction Methods. Compare and contrast the different methods of extracting cannabis oil from the plant material, such as sieving, butane, CO2, ethanol, and rosin. Discuss the pros and cons of each method, the equipment and safety requirements, the yield and potency, and the quality and flavor of the resulting oil.
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** [[Cannabis Extraction Methods]]
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* Chapter 2: Cannabis Purification Methods. Explain how to further refine the crude cannabis oil to remove impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents. Describe the steps of winterization, filtration, and decarboxylation. Explain how these methods affect the purity and potency of the oil.
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** [[Cannabis Purification Methods]]
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* Chapter 3: <b>[[Cannabis Distillation Methods]].</b> Describe the process of distilling cannabis oil to isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD. Explain how short-path distillation works and what are the advantages and disadvantages of this technique. Discuss the equipment and safety requirements, the temperature and vacuum settings, the fractions and boiling points, and the purity and potency of the distillate.
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** [[MyNotes|Cannabis Distillation Methods]]  
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* Chapter 4: Cannabis Distillate Products. Explore the different ways to use cannabis distillate in various products, such as edibles, vape cartridges, tinctures, topicals, and dabbing. Explain how to infuse distillate with terpenes or other additives to enhance the flavor and effects. Provide some recipes and tips for making your own cannabis distillate products at home.
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*** [[Pressure-Temperature]]
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* Conclusion: Summarize the main points of the book and provide some recommendations for further reading or learning. Emphasize the benefits of cannabis distillate as a versatile and potent cannabis product that can be customized to suit different preferences and needs.
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** [[Cannabis Distillate Products]]
  
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Source: Conversation with Bing, 6/4/2023
 
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*(1) What Is Cannabis Distillate? – Find out inside! | Green Goods. https://visitgreengoods.com/learn/cannabis-distillate/.
 
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*[https://potguide.com/blog/article/cannabis-distillate-everything-you-need-to-know/ (2) Cannabis Distillate: Everything You Need to Know | PotGuide.]
 
−
*(3) How to Make THC Distillate: Everything You Need to Know. https://www.wikileaf.com/thestash/how-to-make-thc-distillate/.
 
−
*(4) Cannabis Distillate: What It Is and How to Make It - a Pot for Pot. https://apotforpot.com/blogs/learn/cannabis-distillate/.
 
−
*(5) Cannabis Distillate | What It Is and How To Make Distillate. https://precisionextraction.com/2018/02/making-cannabis-distillate/.
 
  
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<hr>
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= My To Do List =
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# These Wiki pages
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# My Lab Notes - capture all steps, keywords to cross-reference so I can discover patterns
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# Research: Distilling Vendors' Whitepapers
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= Tips =
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Here are some additional tips for distilling cannabis:
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* Use fresh, high-quality cannabis material.
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* Use a clean, well-maintained distillation apparatus.
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* Follow the manufacturer's instructions for the distillation apparatus.
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* Monitor the temperature carefully during distillation.
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* Collect the distillate in a clean, dry container.
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 +
= <span id="Cannabis Distillation Guide - Compiled by JMP"></span>Cannabis Distillation Guide =
 +
 +
== Introduction ==
 +
Cannabis distillation is a relatively new technique that has emerged as the cannabis industry transitions from a black market to a legal market, and requires advanced equipment and safety measures. However, distillation itself is an ancient process that has been used for centuries to produce alcohol, essential oils, perfumes, and medicines. Distillation is the final process for making cannabis oil. It is a purification process that uses heat, steam, and vacuum pressure to separate all the chemical compounds in the concentrate and produce a concentrated cannabinoid distillate. During distillation, terpenes and flavonoids are removed from the mixture for a pure cannabinoid.
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The most common method of cannabis distillation is short-path distillation, which involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions. The fractions are collected based on their boiling points, which are lowered by the vacuum pressure. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.
 +
 +
Cannabis distillation has several advantages over other methods of extraction, such as:
 +
 +
* It can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material.
 +
* It can remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents.
 +
* It can isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, for targeted effects.
 +
* It can produce a clear and transparent oil that is suitable for various applications.
 +
 +
However, cannabis distillation also has some drawbacks, such as:
 +
 +
* It requires expensive and sophisticated equipment and safety measures.
 +
* It removes the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma.
 +
* t may reduce the entourage effect of the cannabinoids, which is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the plant.
 +
 +
Therefore, some manufacturers add terpenes or other additives to the distillate to enhance its properties.
 +
 +
== Cannabis Distillation Methods ==
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* [https://testbook.com/chemistry/distillation Distillation: its concept, types, comparisons and applications]
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 +
Cannabis distillation methods are the techniques used to isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, from the cannabis oil after extraction and purification. Cannabis distillation methods can produce a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products, such as edibles, vape cartridges, tinctures, topicals, and dabbing. Cannabis distillation methods can also remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents, from the oil. The process involves using heat and vacuum pressure to separate individual cannabinoids and terpenes from the decarboxylated extract according to their unique boiling points and [[Pressure-Temperature#Molecular Weight - mole|molecular weights]]. The most common method of cannabis distillation is Short Path Distillation, which involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions.
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There are several methods used for cannabis distillation. Here are some of the commonly employed techniques:
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=== <b>Thin Film Distillation</b> ===
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In the cannabis industry, thin film distillation is used to produce high-quality distillate. Distillate is a highly concentrated form of cannabis extract that is free of unwanted impurities. It is made by evaporating the solvent from a cannabis extract and then condensing the vapors back into a liquid. Thin film distillation is a more efficient way to produce distillate than traditional distillation. Thin film distillation is a type of distillation that uses a thin film of liquid to facilitate the separation of the different components of the liquid. The liquid is spread in a thin film on a heated surface, and the vapors are then condensed back into a liquid. This process is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid, and it is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the liquid. This is because it uses a thin film of liquid, which allows for more efficient heat transfer. Thin film distillation is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the cannabis extract, which results in a higher-quality distillate.is a type of distillation that uses a thin film of liquid to facilitate the separation of the different components of the liquid. The liquid is spread in a thin film on a heated surface, and the vapors are then condensed back into a liquid. This process is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid, and it is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the liquid. Thin film distillation is used in a variety of industries, including the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and the chemical industry. It is also used in the cannabis industry to produce high-quality distillate.
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<center><img src="https://b2090902.smushcdn.com/2090902/wp-content/uploads/page17-tfe-plant/tfe-composite-base670px.jpg" width="400"><br>'https://b2090902.smushcdn.com/</center>
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Here are the steps involved in thin film distillation:
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# The liquid is heated to a specific temperature, which causes it to vaporize.
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# The vapors are passed over a heated surface, where they condense back into a liquid.
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# The different fractions of the liquid can then be collected separately.
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# The thickness of the thin film is important for the efficiency of the distillation process. The thinner the film, the more efficient the process will be. However, the film cannot be too thin, or it will not be able to hold the liquid.
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# The speed of rotation of the heated surface is also important. The faster the surface rotates, the thinner the film will be. However, the speed cannot be too fast, or the liquid will not have time to vaporize.
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Thin film distillation is a versatile process that can be used to separate a variety of compounds from liquids. It is a more efficient and less damaging process than traditional distillation, and it is therefore becoming increasingly popular in a variety of industries. Here are some of the advantages of thin film distillation:
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* It is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid.
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* It is less likely to damage the volatile compounds in a liquid.
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* It can be used to separate a variety of compounds from liquids.
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* It is a versatile process that can be used in a variety of industries.
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Here are some of the disadvantages of thin film distillation:
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* It requires specialized equipment.
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* It can be a more expensive process than traditional distillation.
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* It is not suitable for all types of liquids.
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<youtube>TcrisqBs010</youtube>
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<youtube>jRieOgIKdMQ</youtube>
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<youtube>4Tg-QMLb-2A</youtube>
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<youtube>RS-2asFipNA</youtube>
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=== Wiped Film Distillation ===
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also known as molecular distillation, is a high-efficiency distillation technique. Wiped film distillation is a variation of thin film distillation that uses a rotating wiper to spread the liquid in a thin film. The wiper ensures that the liquid is evenly spread on the heated surface, which helps to improve the efficiency of the distillation process. Wiped film distillation is also more efficient than short-path distillation for separating the different components of a liquid. It involves heating the cannabis extract on a heated surface, while a rotating wiper blade continuously spreads the extract as a thin film. This method is particularly effective for separating compounds with similar boiling points and achieving a high level of purity. The most common pieces of equipment are wiped film short-path molecular stills. In this approach, the feedstock of oil is fed into a jacketed vessel that is often heated with an oil circulating temperature control unit to achieve temperatures up to 343 degrees Celsius, though the typical distillation temperature range is 130-180 degrees Celsius. In these systems, the feed stock is distributed on the evaporation chamber wall with a special wiper. The resulting thin film allows the more volatile terpenes to evaporate through the top of the chamber into their own external collection vessel, while the CBD/THC is collected along a temperature-controlled central condenser unit which is cooler (typically 60-70 degrees Celsius) than the evaporation chamber and serves to attract the cannabinoid vapor. The final step in the process is solvent removal, accomplished in a separate, external cold trap, which is also temperature controlled with a chiller.
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<table>
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    <tr>
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      <th>Feature</th>
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      <th>Thin film distillation</th>
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      <th>Wiped film distillation</th>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Liquid film thickness</td>
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      <td>Typically less than 1 mm</td>
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      <td>Typically 0.1-0.2 mm</td>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Heat transfer rate</td>
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      <td>Higher</td>
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      <td>Higher</td>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Volatile compound damage</td>
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      <td>Lower</td>
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      <td>Lower</td>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Equipment cost</td>
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      <td>Lower</td>
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      <td>Higher</td>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Operational cost</td>
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      <td>Lower</td>
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      <td>Higher</td>
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    </tr>
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    <tr>
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      <td>Production capacity</td>
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      <td>Lower</td>
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      <td>Higher</td>
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    </tr>
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</table>
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<youtube>AWW9ZMkp9wI</youtube>
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<youtube>ch4UKfB3PaU</youtube>
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=== Other ===
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* <b>Steam Distillation:</b> Steam distillation is a method commonly used for extracting essential oils from plants, including cannabis. It involves passing steam through the cannabis plant material, vaporizing the essential oils and other volatile compounds. The vapor is then condensed and collected, resulting in a distilled product.
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* <b>Vacuum Distillation:</b> Vacuum distillation utilizes reduced pressure to lower the boiling points of the compounds being distilled. By applying a vacuum, the distillation process can be conducted at lower temperatures, minimizing the degradation of heat-sensitive compounds. Vacuum distillation is often employed in combination with other distillation methods to optimize the process.
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* <b>Fractional Distillation:</b> is a technique used to separate and collect different fractions of compounds based on their boiling points. It involves using a fractionating column, which provides multiple vaporization-condensation cycles, allowing for repeated separation of different compounds based on their boiling points. This method is useful when distilling complex mixtures of compounds.
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* <b>Cold Trapping:</b> is a technique used in distillation to collect volatile compounds that are condensed at low temperatures. By cooling the distillate vapor, volatile compounds can be collected separately from the non-volatile components, improving the purity of the final distillate.
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* <b>Short Path Distillation:</b> is a widely used method for cannabis distillation. It involves heating the cannabis extract under vacuum to reduce the boiling points of different compounds and separate them based on their volatility. The process utilizes a Short Path Distillation apparatus consisting of a boiling flask, a distillation head, a condenser, and a collection flask.
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<youtube>UIklz2DncDo</youtube>
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<youtube>AW7klgwLcQI</youtube>
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==== Short path distillation vs Fractional distillation ====
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Short Path Distillation and fractional distillation are two methods used to purify and separate compounds based on their boiling points. Both methods involve heating a mixture to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing the vapor back into a liquid. The main difference between the two methods is the distance that the vapor travels before it is condensed. In Short Path Distillation, the vapor travels a very short distance (typically just a few centimeters) before it is condensed. This short path length reduces the amount of distillate that is lost during the process and makes it more efficient for distilling small quantities of material. The main advantage of this technique is that it can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material. It is often used for compounds that are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of material.
 +
 +
==== Short Path Distillation ====
 +
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-path_distillation Short-path distillation - Wikipedia]
 +
* [https://www.acrossinternational.com/news/post/short-path-distillation-everything-you-need-to-know How Does Short Path Distillation Work? | Across International]
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* [https://deltaseparations.com/short-path-distillation-definition Short Path Distillation: Definition of Cannabis and Hemp Distillation]
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* [https://www.usalab.com/blog/a-complete-guide-to-short-path-distillation A Complete Guide To Short Path Distillation - USA Lab]
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* [https://shopbvv.com/blogs/bvv-resources/short-path-distillation-basics What Is Short Path Distillation? | Basic Guide | BVV]
 +
* [https://precisionextraction.com/2021/05/guide-to-short-path-distillation A Guide To Short Path Distillation | Precision Extraction]
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* [https://www.rotovap.cn/disadvantages-of-short-path-distillation Disadvantages of Short-Path Distillation | rotovap.cn]
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* [https://deltaseparations.com/short-path-distillation-definition Short Path Distillation: Definition of Cannabis and Hemp Distillation]
 +
* [https://www.cannabistech.com/articles/short-path-distillation-101 The Ultimate Guide to Short Path Distillation | Cannabis Tech]
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* [https://www.labrotovap.com/working-principles-of-short-path-distillation Working Principles of Short Path Distillation]
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* [https://www.acrossinternational.com/news/post/short-path-distillation-everything-you-need-to-know How Does Short Path Distillation Work? | Across International]
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Short-path distillation is a process that is primarily implemented to make the distillation of heavier molecules faster and more efficient. It is also known as fractional distillation or molecular distillation. Short-path distillation is a relatively simple method of separating materials from various compounds based on differences in their volatiles through low-pressure evaporation. The process gets its name because the materials being distilled only travel a short distance throughout the apparatus—typically just a few centimeters. This short path length reduces the amount of distillate that is lost during the process and makes it more efficient for distilling small quantities of material.
  
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Distillation is a method used to purify cannabis extracts by separating the individual compounds based on their boiling points. One common method used to create cannabis distillate is called **short path distillation**. This technique involves heating the cannabis extract to vaporize the THC and CBD, then bringing the vapor into a cooling system for consolidation and eventual collection into beakers².
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Short-path distillation involves heating the purified oil in a round-bottomed flask to vaporize the individual compounds. The flask is connected to a downward-sloping, inclined side-arm that leads to a condensing tube. The condensing tube is located close to the heated flask, which means the extract only has to travel a short distance before it is condensed. A vacuum pump is attached to the system to create a low-pressure environment inside the apparatus. This lowers the boiling points of the compounds and reduces the risk of thermal degradation. The vapors are then condensed back into a liquid in separate fractions based on their boiling points. The fractions are collected in different flasks or receivers according to their weight. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.
  
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To make cannabis distillate, the cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids must first be extracted from the plant using a solvent such as ethanol or CO2. The cannabis must be dried to 5-15% water content, shucked from the stems, and ground to 2-300 microns for more efficient extraction¹. Once the extract is obtained, it can be distilled using a short-path distillation unit to separate the THC from other compounds¹.
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==== Advantages and Disadvantages of Short-Path Distillation ====
 +
Short-path distillation has several advantages over other methods of cannabis distillation, such as:
  
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Short path distillation and fractional distillation are two methods used to purify and separate compounds based on their boiling points. Both methods involve heating a mixture to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing the vapor back into a liquid.
+
* It can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material.
 +
* It can remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents.
 +
* It can isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, for targeted effects.
 +
* It can produce a clear and transparent oil that is suitable for various applications.
  
−
The main difference between the two methods is the distance that the vapor travels before it is condensed. In short path distillation, the vapor travels a very short distance (typically just a few centimeters) before it is condensed. This short path length reduces the amount of distillate that is lost during the process and makes it more efficient for distilling small quantities of material².
+
However, short-path distillation also has some drawbacks, such as:
  
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Fractional distillation, on the other hand, involves a longer path length for the vapor to travel. The mixture is heated in a flask and the vapor rises up a fractionating column before it is condensed. The fractionating column contains packing material that provides a large surface area for the vapor to condense on. As the vapor condenses and re-vaporizes on its way up the column, it becomes increasingly enriched in the lower boiling point compound⁵.
+
* It requires expensive and sophisticated equipment and safety measures. Short path distillation equipment can be expensive compared to traditional distillation equipment
 +
* It removes the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma. The process separates out and concentrates cannabis and hemp oil into three distinct categories: cannabinoids, terpenoids and flavonoids, and contaminants¹. This means that the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma are removed during the process.
 +
* It may reduce the entourage effect of the cannabinoids, which is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the plant. The entourage effect is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the cannabis plant. Since the short path distillation process separates out the different compounds, it may reduce the entourage effect.
  
 +
Therefore, some manufacturers add terpenes or other additives to the distillate to enhance its properties.
  
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(1) A Complete Guide To Short Path Distillation - USA Lab. https://www.usalab.com/blog/a-complete-guide-to-short-path-distillation/.
 
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(2) Fractional Distillation versus Simple Distillation | B/R Blog. https://brinstrument.com/blog/cannabis-distillation/fractional-distillation-versus-simple-distillation/.
 
−
(3) 5.2D: Microscale Distillation - Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_%28Nichols%29/05%3A_Distillation/5.02%3A_Simple_Distillation/5.2D%3A_Microscale_Distillation.
 
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(4) A Guide To Short Path Distillation | Precision Extraction. https://precisionextraction.com/2021/05/guide-to-short-path-distillation/.
 
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(5) Short Path Distillation & Fractional Distillation - Lab Society. https://labsociety.com/lab-equipment-category/short-path-distillation/.
 
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(1) Cannabis Distillate: Everything You Need to Know | PotGuide. https://potguide.com/blog/article/cannabis-distillate-everything-you-need-to-know/.
 
−
(2) Cannabis Distillate: What It Is and How to Make It - a Pot for Pot. https://apotforpot.com/blogs/learn/cannabis-distillate/.
 
−
(3) How to Make THC Distillate: Everything You Need to Know. https://www.wikileaf.com/thestash/how-to-make-thc-distillate/.
 
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(4) Cannabis Distillate | What It Is and How To Make Distillate. https://precisionextraction.com/2018/02/making-cannabis-distillate/.
 
−
(5) Refine Distillate Extraction For Cannabis Products | Precision Extractions. https://precisionextraction.com/2022/02/how-to-make-distillate-extraction/.
 
  
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<hr><center><i>
  
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The <b>entourage effect</b>< is thought to be due to an interaction between phytocannabinoids and terpenes. Phytocannabinoids are compounds found in the cannabis plant, such as THC and cannabidiol (CBD), while terpenes are organic compounds that give plants their aroma and flavor
  
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</i></center><hr>
  
  
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<youtube>UIklz2DncDo</youtube>
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<hr>
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<youtube>AW7klgwLcQI</youtube>
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<youtube>u-Y05B_ex_c</youtube>
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<youtube>6HP5r9U7ZR0</youtube>
  
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Processing Marijuana:
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= Introduction to D9-THC distillation class - September 1st 2018 =
 +
his is a 6 hour long slide lecture + live demo of D9-THC distillation for those who want to get hip to basic benchtop techniques and principals.  If you have any questions throw them in the comments I'm happy to answer what I know and can help explain.  This was filmed back in 2018 so techniques and equipment may have changed but for the most part this is a solid foundation for all your distillation needs.
  
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1. <b>Introduction</b>: As the cannabis industry transitions from a black market to a legal market, product development and methods of extraction have become a focal point. However, scientific publications that explore these areas for the cannabis plant are currently lacking¹.
+
* 0:00 Stream Starting Soon (SKIP!)
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* 28:57 Part 1: Distillation lecture
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* 3:24:07 End of Lunch Break
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* 3:49:22 Part 2: Live distillation demo
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* 6:19:26 Wrap Up Discussion
  
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2. <b>Method</b>: This is a narrative review paper which focuses on critiquing drying and extraction methods of Cannabis sativa L. plant. Relevant keywords such as medicinal cannabis, extraction, solvent, cannabinoids, and terpenes have been searched in PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library (Wiley) databases¹.
+
* Part 1: Distillation lecture
 +
** Classroom Lecture / Slides
 +
** Origins and history of distillation
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** Basics of distillation apparatus
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** Design of distillation apparatus (Batch, Continuous, Industrial, Benchtop)
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** Principles of distillation (Thermal Energy, Boiling Points, -Evaporative Theory, Vapor Pressure)
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** Simple Distillation (Colligative Properties / Solutes, Boiling Point -Elevation)
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** Vacuum Distillation (Vacuum Pumps, Benchtop Distillation, -Rotorary Evaporators, Alcohol Stills)
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** Fractional Distillation (Vacuum Pumps, Short Path Distillation, Theoretical Plates, Reflux Ratio, Packing, Column Design, Vacuum Level, Vacuum Displacement)
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* Molecular Distillation (Wiped film, Thin film, Falling Film, Diffusion Pumps)
  
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3. <b>Result</b>: Based on this review, solvent extraction is the most common method for cannabis plants. Although solventless and hydrodynamic extraction are known for their high yield and feasibility, more investigation is needed in these areas. Regarding the drying process, hang-drying is the most convenient method; however, it may be substituted by freeze-drying in the near future¹.
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- Lunch Break
  
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<hr>
+
* Part 2: Live distillation demo
 +
** Winterization & Filtration Discussion
 +
** Safety & Setup
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** Terpene Distillation
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** Cannabinoid Distillation
  
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* Wrap Up Discussion:
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** Terpene Reintroduction
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** Product Applications (Edibles, E-Pens, Pharmaceutical, Topical)
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** Q&A / Open Discussion
  
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4. <b>Discussion</b>: This review analyses various drying and extraction processes to guide the selection of suitable methods for various types of cannabis products and applications. This is done by outlining traditional and modern methods of drying techniques, exploring the importance of solvents for extraction, visiting solventless extraction procedures, and finally comparing conventional and alternative methods of extraction¹.
 
  
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4.1. <b>Introduction</b>: As the cannabis industry transitions from a black market to a legal market, product development and methods of extraction have become a focal point. However, scientific publications that explore these areas for the cannabis plant are currently lacking.
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= Glossary =
  
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4.2. <b>Solvent Extraction</b>: Solvent extraction is the most common method for cannabis plants. This section would explore the different types of solvents used and their effectiveness in extracting cannabinoids and terpenes from the cannabis plant.
+
* <b>Cannabinoids:</b> The chemical compounds found in cannabis that interact with the endocannabinoid system in the human body and produce various effects, such as euphoria, relaxation, pain relief, anti-inflammation, etc. The most common cannabinoids are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which is psychoactive, and CBD (cannabidiol), which is non-psychoactive.  
  
−
4.3. <b>Solventless Extraction</b>: Solventless extraction methods such as rosin pressing and dry sifting are known for their high yield and feasibility. This section would explore these methods in detail and compare their effectiveness to solvent extraction.
+
* <b>Distillation:</b> The process of separating and refining the cannabinoids based on their boiling points. This involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.  
  
−
4.4. <b>Hydrodynamic Extraction</b>: Hydrodynamic extraction is another method that is known for its high yield and feasibility. This section would explore this method in detail and compare its effectiveness to other extraction methods.
+
* <b>Extraction:</b> The process of separating the cannabinoids and terpenes from the plant material using a solvent. There are different methods of extraction, such as sieving, butane, CO2, ethanol, and rosin, each with its own pros and cons regarding yield, potency, quality, flavor, equipment, and safety.
  
−
4.5. <b>Comparison of Extraction Methods</b>: This section would compare the different extraction methods discussed in the previous sections and provide guidance on selecting the most suitable method for various types of cannabis products and applications.
+
* <b>Fractional distillation:</b> involves a longer path length than short path for the vapor to travel. The mixture is heated in a flask and the vapor rises up a fractionating column before it is condensed. The fractionating column contains packing material that provides a large surface area for the vapor to condense on. As the vapor condenses and re-vaporizes on its way up the column, it becomes increasingly enriched in the lower boiling point compound.
  
 +
* <b>Purification:</b> The process of removing impurities from the crude cannabis oil after extraction, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents. This involves steps such as winterization (freezing the oil to separate the fats), filtration (passing the oil through a filter to remove solids), and decarboxylation (heating the oil to activate the cannabinoids).
  
−
<hr>
+
* <b>[[Short Path Distillation]]:</b>A distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure. This technique involves heating the cannabis extract to vaporize the THC and CBD, then bringing the vapor into a cooling system for consolidation and eventual collection into beakers. A form of fractional distillation used to separate an oleoresin into its active compounds: essential oils, resin, and more. It creates a "distillate," or pure compound in the form of a clear-golden liquid with little to no taste or color.
  
−
5. <b>Conclusion</b>: In conclusion, based on the current knowledge, using organic solvents is the most convenient method for medicinal cannabis extraction. However, more research is needed for some of the drying and extraction methods. Also, developing a green and sustainable cannabis extraction method should be considered for future studies¹.
+
* <b>Solvent:</b> The chemical liquids that dissolve the cannabinoids and terpenes from the cannabis plant during extraction. Common solvents used for cannabis extraction are ethanol, CO2, butane, and propane.  
  
 +
* <b>Terpene</b> The aromatic compounds found in cannabis and other plants that give them their distinctive smell and taste. Terpenes also have therapeutic benefits and may modulate the effects of cannabinoids.
  
 +
= Resources; <i>recommendations for further learning</i> =
 +
== Publications ==
 +
* PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library (Wiley) databases.
 +
* [https://jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com Journal of Cannabis Research]
 +
* [https://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/prospect/ontology.asp?id=CMO:0001543 Ontology - The Royal Society of Chemistry]
 +
* [https://extractionmagazine.com Extraction Magazine]
  
−
Source: Conversation with Bing, 6/4/2023
+
== Websites ==
−
(1) Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative .... https://jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42238-021-00087-9.
+
* [https://potguide.com/blog/article/cannabis-distillate-everything-you-need-to-know/ Cannabis Distillate: Everything You Need to Know | Morgan Smith - PotGuide]
−
(2) Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative .... https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8290527/.
+
* [https://visitgreengoods.com/learn/cannabis-distillate What Is Cannabis Distillate? – Find out inside! | Green Goods]
−
(3) Revised€Julio 2020 Cannabis (Marijuana) Research Report. https://nida.nih.gov/download/1380/cannabis-marijuana-research-report.pdf?v=7fc7d24c3dc120a03cf26348876bc1e4.
+
* [https://www.wikileaf.com/thestash/how-to-make-thc-distillate How to Make THC Distillate: Everything You Need to Know]
 +
* [https://apotforpot.com/blogs/learn/cannabis-distillateannabis Distillate: What It Is and How to Make It | a Pot for Pot]\
 +
* [https://precisionextraction.com/2018/02/making-cannabis-distillate What It Is and How To Make Distillate]
 +
* [https://www.usalab.com/blog/a-complete-guide-to-short-path-distillation A Complete Guide To Short Path Distillation | USA Lab]
 +
* [https://brinstrument.com/blog/cannabis-distillation/fractional-distillation-versus-simple-distillation Fractional Distillation versus Simple Distillation | B/R Blog]
 +
* [https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_%28Nichols%29/05%3A_Distillation/5.02%3A_Simple_Distillation/5.2D%3A_Microscale_Distillation Microscale Distillation - Chemistry LibreTexts]
 +
* [https://labsociety.com/lab-equipment-category/short-path-distillation Short Path Distillation & Fractional Distillation - Lab Society]
 +
* [https://precisionextraction.com/2018/02/making-cannabis-distillate Cannabis Distillate | What It Is and How To Make Distillate]
 +
* [https://precisionextraction.com/2022/02/how-to-make-distillate-extraction Refine Distillate Extraction For Cannabis Products | Precision Extractions].
 +
* [https://jcannabisresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42238-021-00087-9 Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative]
 +
* [https://nida.nih.gov/download/1380/cannabis-marijuana-research-report.pdf?v=7fc7d24c3dc120a03cf26348876bc1e4 2020 Cannabis (Marijuana) Research Report]
 +
* [https://hightimes.com/culture/cannabis-distillatesGetting Near The Clear: A Guide To Cannabis Distillates]
 +
* [https://www.leafly.com/news/science-tech/cannabis-extraction-and-distillation Cannabis Distillation: The Last Mile in Extraction | Leafly]
 +
* [https://www.analyticalcannabis.com/articles/the-best-cannabis-extraction-methods-for-marijuana-concentrates-300434 The Best Cannabis Extraction Methods for Marijuana Concentrates]
 +
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8290527 Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative]
 +
* [https://cannabistraininguniversity.com/cooking/cannabis-extraction-guide The Ultimate Cannabis Extraction Guide - Cannabis Training University]
 +
* [https://jcyounger.com/5-most-common-cannabis-extraction-methods-in-2020 Top 5 Cannabis Extraction Methods in 2022 | JC Younger]
 +
* https://www.drgreenrelief.com/blog/types-of-cannabis-extraction-methodsDifferent Types of Cannabis Extraction Methods | Dr. Green Relief]
 +
* [https://www.canadacannabisdispensary.co/cannabis-extraction-methods-winterization-decarboxylation-and-filtrationCannabis Extraction Methods: Winterization Decarboxylation And Filtration] 
 +
* [https://extractionmagazine.com/category/applied-technology/cannabis-extract-winterization-filtration Cannabis Extract Winterization & Filtration - Extraction Magazine]
 +
* [https://precisionextraction.com/2020/06/what-is-the-winterization-process-in-cannabis-extraction Winterization Process in Cannabis Oil Extraction | Remove Waxes and Fat]
 +
* [https://www.cannabistech.com/articles/how-are-cannabis-distillates-made How Are Cannabis Distillates Made? | Cannabis Tech]
 +
* [https://potguide.com/blog/article/cannabis-distillate-everything-you-need-to-know Cannabis Distillate: Everything You Need to Know | PotGuide]
 +
* [https://dimohemp.com/complete-cannabis-distillate-guide The Complete Cannabis Distillate Guide | DIMO]
 +
* [https://www.fishersci.com/us/en/browse/90202021/distillation-labware?page=1 Distillation Labware | Fisher Scientific]

Latest revision as of 21:38, 18 May 2024

YouTube ... Quora ...Google search ...Google News ...Bing News


My To Do List

  1. These Wiki pages
  2. My Lab Notes - capture all steps, keywords to cross-reference so I can discover patterns
  3. Research: Distilling Vendors' Whitepapers

Tips

Here are some additional tips for distilling cannabis:

  • Use fresh, high-quality cannabis material.
  • Use a clean, well-maintained distillation apparatus.
  • Follow the manufacturer's instructions for the distillation apparatus.
  • Monitor the temperature carefully during distillation.
  • Collect the distillate in a clean, dry container.

Cannabis Distillation Guide

Introduction

Cannabis distillation is a relatively new technique that has emerged as the cannabis industry transitions from a black market to a legal market, and requires advanced equipment and safety measures. However, distillation itself is an ancient process that has been used for centuries to produce alcohol, essential oils, perfumes, and medicines. Distillation is the final process for making cannabis oil. It is a purification process that uses heat, steam, and vacuum pressure to separate all the chemical compounds in the concentrate and produce a concentrated cannabinoid distillate. During distillation, terpenes and flavonoids are removed from the mixture for a pure cannabinoid.

The most common method of cannabis distillation is short-path distillation, which involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions. The fractions are collected based on their boiling points, which are lowered by the vacuum pressure. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.

Cannabis distillation has several advantages over other methods of extraction, such as:

  • It can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material.
  • It can remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents.
  • It can isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, for targeted effects.
  • It can produce a clear and transparent oil that is suitable for various applications.

However, cannabis distillation also has some drawbacks, such as:

  • It requires expensive and sophisticated equipment and safety measures.
  • It removes the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma.
  • t may reduce the entourage effect of the cannabinoids, which is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the plant.

Therefore, some manufacturers add terpenes or other additives to the distillate to enhance its properties.

Cannabis Distillation Methods

Cannabis distillation methods are the techniques used to isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, from the cannabis oil after extraction and purification. Cannabis distillation methods can produce a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products, such as edibles, vape cartridges, tinctures, topicals, and dabbing. Cannabis distillation methods can also remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents, from the oil. The process involves using heat and vacuum pressure to separate individual cannabinoids and terpenes from the decarboxylated extract according to their unique boiling points and molecular weights. The most common method of cannabis distillation is Short Path Distillation, which involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions.

There are several methods used for cannabis distillation. Here are some of the commonly employed techniques:

Thin Film Distillation

In the cannabis industry, thin film distillation is used to produce high-quality distillate. Distillate is a highly concentrated form of cannabis extract that is free of unwanted impurities. It is made by evaporating the solvent from a cannabis extract and then condensing the vapors back into a liquid. Thin film distillation is a more efficient way to produce distillate than traditional distillation. Thin film distillation is a type of distillation that uses a thin film of liquid to facilitate the separation of the different components of the liquid. The liquid is spread in a thin film on a heated surface, and the vapors are then condensed back into a liquid. This process is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid, and it is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the liquid. This is because it uses a thin film of liquid, which allows for more efficient heat transfer. Thin film distillation is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the cannabis extract, which results in a higher-quality distillate.is a type of distillation that uses a thin film of liquid to facilitate the separation of the different components of the liquid. The liquid is spread in a thin film on a heated surface, and the vapors are then condensed back into a liquid. This process is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid, and it is also less likely to damage the volatile compounds in the liquid. Thin film distillation is used in a variety of industries, including the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and the chemical industry. It is also used in the cannabis industry to produce high-quality distillate.


'https://b2090902.smushcdn.com/


Here are the steps involved in thin film distillation:

  1. The liquid is heated to a specific temperature, which causes it to vaporize.
  2. The vapors are passed over a heated surface, where they condense back into a liquid.
  3. The different fractions of the liquid can then be collected separately.
  4. The thickness of the thin film is important for the efficiency of the distillation process. The thinner the film, the more efficient the process will be. However, the film cannot be too thin, or it will not be able to hold the liquid.
  5. The speed of rotation of the heated surface is also important. The faster the surface rotates, the thinner the film will be. However, the speed cannot be too fast, or the liquid will not have time to vaporize.

Thin film distillation is a versatile process that can be used to separate a variety of compounds from liquids. It is a more efficient and less damaging process than traditional distillation, and it is therefore becoming increasingly popular in a variety of industries. Here are some of the advantages of thin film distillation:

  • It is more efficient than traditional distillation for separating the different components of a liquid.
  • It is less likely to damage the volatile compounds in a liquid.
  • It can be used to separate a variety of compounds from liquids.
  • It is a versatile process that can be used in a variety of industries.

Here are some of the disadvantages of thin film distillation:

  • It requires specialized equipment.
  • It can be a more expensive process than traditional distillation.
  • It is not suitable for all types of liquids.

Wiped Film Distillation

also known as molecular distillation, is a high-efficiency distillation technique. Wiped film distillation is a variation of thin film distillation that uses a rotating wiper to spread the liquid in a thin film. The wiper ensures that the liquid is evenly spread on the heated surface, which helps to improve the efficiency of the distillation process. Wiped film distillation is also more efficient than short-path distillation for separating the different components of a liquid. It involves heating the cannabis extract on a heated surface, while a rotating wiper blade continuously spreads the extract as a thin film. This method is particularly effective for separating compounds with similar boiling points and achieving a high level of purity. The most common pieces of equipment are wiped film short-path molecular stills. In this approach, the feedstock of oil is fed into a jacketed vessel that is often heated with an oil circulating temperature control unit to achieve temperatures up to 343 degrees Celsius, though the typical distillation temperature range is 130-180 degrees Celsius. In these systems, the feed stock is distributed on the evaporation chamber wall with a special wiper. The resulting thin film allows the more volatile terpenes to evaporate through the top of the chamber into their own external collection vessel, while the CBD/THC is collected along a temperature-controlled central condenser unit which is cooler (typically 60-70 degrees Celsius) than the evaporation chamber and serves to attract the cannabinoid vapor. The final step in the process is solvent removal, accomplished in a separate, external cold trap, which is also temperature controlled with a chiller.

Feature Thin film distillation Wiped film distillation
Liquid film thickness Typically less than 1 mm Typically 0.1-0.2 mm
Heat transfer rate Higher Higher
Volatile compound damage Lower Lower
Equipment cost Lower Higher
Operational cost Lower Higher
Production capacity Lower Higher

Other

  • Steam Distillation: Steam distillation is a method commonly used for extracting essential oils from plants, including cannabis. It involves passing steam through the cannabis plant material, vaporizing the essential oils and other volatile compounds. The vapor is then condensed and collected, resulting in a distilled product.
  • Vacuum Distillation: Vacuum distillation utilizes reduced pressure to lower the boiling points of the compounds being distilled. By applying a vacuum, the distillation process can be conducted at lower temperatures, minimizing the degradation of heat-sensitive compounds. Vacuum distillation is often employed in combination with other distillation methods to optimize the process.
  • Fractional Distillation: is a technique used to separate and collect different fractions of compounds based on their boiling points. It involves using a fractionating column, which provides multiple vaporization-condensation cycles, allowing for repeated separation of different compounds based on their boiling points. This method is useful when distilling complex mixtures of compounds.
  • Cold Trapping: is a technique used in distillation to collect volatile compounds that are condensed at low temperatures. By cooling the distillate vapor, volatile compounds can be collected separately from the non-volatile components, improving the purity of the final distillate.
  • Short Path Distillation: is a widely used method for cannabis distillation. It involves heating the cannabis extract under vacuum to reduce the boiling points of different compounds and separate them based on their volatility. The process utilizes a Short Path Distillation apparatus consisting of a boiling flask, a distillation head, a condenser, and a collection flask.

Short path distillation vs Fractional distillation

Short Path Distillation and fractional distillation are two methods used to purify and separate compounds based on their boiling points. Both methods involve heating a mixture to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing the vapor back into a liquid. The main difference between the two methods is the distance that the vapor travels before it is condensed. In Short Path Distillation, the vapor travels a very short distance (typically just a few centimeters) before it is condensed. This short path length reduces the amount of distillate that is lost during the process and makes it more efficient for distilling small quantities of material. The main advantage of this technique is that it can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material. It is often used for compounds that are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of material.

Short Path Distillation


Short-path distillation is a process that is primarily implemented to make the distillation of heavier molecules faster and more efficient. It is also known as fractional distillation or molecular distillation. Short-path distillation is a relatively simple method of separating materials from various compounds based on differences in their volatiles through low-pressure evaporation. The process gets its name because the materials being distilled only travel a short distance throughout the apparatus—typically just a few centimeters. This short path length reduces the amount of distillate that is lost during the process and makes it more efficient for distilling small quantities of material.

Short-path distillation involves heating the purified oil in a round-bottomed flask to vaporize the individual compounds. The flask is connected to a downward-sloping, inclined side-arm that leads to a condensing tube. The condensing tube is located close to the heated flask, which means the extract only has to travel a short distance before it is condensed. A vacuum pump is attached to the system to create a low-pressure environment inside the apparatus. This lowers the boiling points of the compounds and reduces the risk of thermal degradation. The vapors are then condensed back into a liquid in separate fractions based on their boiling points. The fractions are collected in different flasks or receivers according to their weight. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Short-Path Distillation

Short-path distillation has several advantages over other methods of cannabis distillation, such as:

  • It can achieve high purity and potency of the desired compound by lowering the boiling point and minimizing the loss of material.
  • It can remove unwanted impurities, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents.
  • It can isolate specific cannabinoids, such as THC or CBD, for targeted effects.
  • It can produce a clear and transparent oil that is suitable for various applications.

However, short-path distillation also has some drawbacks, such as:

  • It requires expensive and sophisticated equipment and safety measures. Short path distillation equipment can be expensive compared to traditional distillation equipment
  • It removes the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma. The process separates out and concentrates cannabis and hemp oil into three distinct categories: cannabinoids, terpenoids and flavonoids, and contaminants¹. This means that the natural terpenes and flavonoids that give cannabis its flavor and aroma are removed during the process.
  • It may reduce the entourage effect of the cannabinoids, which is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the plant. The entourage effect is the synergistic interaction of all the compounds in the cannabis plant. Since the short path distillation process separates out the different compounds, it may reduce the entourage effect.

Therefore, some manufacturers add terpenes or other additives to the distillate to enhance its properties.


The entourage effect< is thought to be due to an interaction between phytocannabinoids and terpenes. Phytocannabinoids are compounds found in the cannabis plant, such as THC and cannabidiol (CBD), while terpenes are organic compounds that give plants their aroma and flavor


Introduction to D9-THC distillation class - September 1st 2018

his is a 6 hour long slide lecture + live demo of D9-THC distillation for those who want to get hip to basic benchtop techniques and principals. If you have any questions throw them in the comments I'm happy to answer what I know and can help explain. This was filmed back in 2018 so techniques and equipment may have changed but for the most part this is a solid foundation for all your distillation needs.

  • 0:00 Stream Starting Soon (SKIP!)
  • 28:57 Part 1: Distillation lecture
  • 3:24:07 End of Lunch Break
  • 3:49:22 Part 2: Live distillation demo
  • 6:19:26 Wrap Up Discussion
  • Part 1: Distillation lecture
    • Classroom Lecture / Slides
    • Origins and history of distillation
    • Basics of distillation apparatus
    • Design of distillation apparatus (Batch, Continuous, Industrial, Benchtop)
    • Principles of distillation (Thermal Energy, Boiling Points, -Evaporative Theory, Vapor Pressure)
    • Simple Distillation (Colligative Properties / Solutes, Boiling Point -Elevation)
    • Vacuum Distillation (Vacuum Pumps, Benchtop Distillation, -Rotorary Evaporators, Alcohol Stills)
    • Fractional Distillation (Vacuum Pumps, Short Path Distillation, Theoretical Plates, Reflux Ratio, Packing, Column Design, Vacuum Level, Vacuum Displacement)
  • Molecular Distillation (Wiped film, Thin film, Falling Film, Diffusion Pumps)

- Lunch Break

  • Part 2: Live distillation demo
    • Winterization & Filtration Discussion
    • Safety & Setup
    • Terpene Distillation
    • Cannabinoid Distillation
  • Wrap Up Discussion:
    • Terpene Reintroduction
    • Product Applications (Edibles, E-Pens, Pharmaceutical, Topical)
    • Q&A / Open Discussion


Glossary

  • Cannabinoids: The chemical compounds found in cannabis that interact with the endocannabinoid system in the human body and produce various effects, such as euphoria, relaxation, pain relief, anti-inflammation, etc. The most common cannabinoids are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which is psychoactive, and CBD (cannabidiol), which is non-psychoactive.
  • Distillation: The process of separating and refining the cannabinoids based on their boiling points. This involves heating the purified oil to vaporize the individual compounds and then condensing them back into a liquid in separate fractions. The result is a highly pure and potent distillate that can be used for various products.
  • Extraction: The process of separating the cannabinoids and terpenes from the plant material using a solvent. There are different methods of extraction, such as sieving, butane, CO2, ethanol, and rosin, each with its own pros and cons regarding yield, potency, quality, flavor, equipment, and safety.
  • Fractional distillation: involves a longer path length than short path for the vapor to travel. The mixture is heated in a flask and the vapor rises up a fractionating column before it is condensed. The fractionating column contains packing material that provides a large surface area for the vapor to condense on. As the vapor condenses and re-vaporizes on its way up the column, it becomes increasingly enriched in the lower boiling point compound.
  • Purification: The process of removing impurities from the crude cannabis oil after extraction, such as waxes, lipids, chlorophyll, and residual solvents. This involves steps such as winterization (freezing the oil to separate the fats), filtration (passing the oil through a filter to remove solids), and decarboxylation (heating the oil to activate the cannabinoids).
  • Short Path Distillation:A distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure. This technique involves heating the cannabis extract to vaporize the THC and CBD, then bringing the vapor into a cooling system for consolidation and eventual collection into beakers. A form of fractional distillation used to separate an oleoresin into its active compounds: essential oils, resin, and more. It creates a "distillate," or pure compound in the form of a clear-golden liquid with little to no taste or color.
  • Solvent: The chemical liquids that dissolve the cannabinoids and terpenes from the cannabis plant during extraction. Common solvents used for cannabis extraction are ethanol, CO2, butane, and propane.
  • Terpene The aromatic compounds found in cannabis and other plants that give them their distinctive smell and taste. Terpenes also have therapeutic benefits and may modulate the effects of cannabinoids.

Resources; recommendations for further learning

Publications

Websites

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